31. Abu-Zahra, Nadia. Palestinian Domestic Water Shortage and its Effects on Health and Welfare: Current Problems, Current Strategies, Future Considerations. B.A. Thesis Paper, University of Toronto, May 1999: 103 pp.
This thesis presents some of the causes, problems, strategies, activities, organizations, and effects related to the water shortage in Palestinian territories. The paper aims to demonstrate the possibility of improving the Palestinian water supply, health, and welfare through investment directed at current, successful institutions and their strategies. Causes of the water shortage stem from both recent and historical circumstances and include the Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip and lack of local awareness and policy. The latter and other causes indirectly related to Israeli occupation have less impact on water supply but are more flexible in terms of improving the situation. In addressing the problems that characterize the water shortage, this paper discusses thirteen strategies for solutions to these problems. The constraints, advantages and current activities to implement these strategies are analyzed, and the conclusions of the analyses are summarized in "implications for future planning" for each of five goals: improving health, conserving water, preventing pollution, increasing alternative supplies (rainwater and treated wastewater), and increasing conventional supplies (piped water and groundwater). The paper concludes with a look at best, worst, and current scenarios and offers input on how to reach the best-case scenario.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
32.'Assaf, K. Artificial Groundwater Recharge as an Alternative in Water Resource Management in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Presented at a workshop on the water situation in the Occupied Territories, Jerusalem, 1991: 23 pp.
In Arabic and English.The paper describes methods, techniques, advantages and disadvantages of artificial recharge of groundwater in the context of possible application of this technique in the West Bank and Gaza.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
33. 'Assaf, K., Al-Khatib, N., Kally, E., and Shuval, H. A Proposal for the Development of a Regional Water Master Plan.
Israel-Palestine Center For Research And Information, 1993, 192 pp.A description of the nature of the Israeli-Palestinian water conflict and the main claims and counterclaims of each party as to their water rights and water security needs is presented. An estimation of the present inventory of surface and ground water in the area between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan river and its present utilization rates by Israel and the Palestinians is presented. The estimated water sources and population size after 30 years predict a severe shortage of water resources in the region.
A number of guidelines for action to reach an agreement which will assure a fair and equitable basis for the utilization of the limited fresh water sources are presented. Regional water projects including desalination of sea water and reuse of waste water are suggested.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
34. Assaf, K., al Khatib, N., Kally, E., and Shuval, H. Water in the Israeli-Arab Conflict. Palestine-Israel Journal of Politics, Economics and Culture 1994; 1: 11-17.
This article was adapted from A Proposal for the Development of a Regional Water Master Plan prepared by a joint Israeli-Palestinian team. The authors maintain the need for joint cooperation between the two parties in solving the water conflict. The three major transboundary water resources shared by the Israelis and Palestinians are discussed, as is the role of international law in the dispute. Principles for peaceful cooperation between the partners to shared water resources and guidelines for action are proposed.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
35. 'Awartani, H. Artisan Wells in the West Bank. Presented at the workshop on the water situation in the Occupied Territories. Jerusalem: 1991, 5 pp.
The paper describes the situation of wells in the West Bank. Wells provide 60% of the total water consumed in the West Bank. Israeli authorities claim that there are 364 wells in the West Bank, 326 of which are irrigation wells and 38 are for household consumption. However, the number of working wells may be much lower and may differ from year to year. Only 19 new wells were dug after the occupation of the West Bank by the Israeli forces. Thirty-three new wells were dug to meet Israeli needs in the West Bank. As a result of the large amounts of water pumped, water levels in the basin have fallen and the quality of water in the wells has deteriorated. Problems facing the Palestinians in fully utilizing the wells include lack of financial capabilities and denial of permits for repair of old wells by the Israeli authorities.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
36. Baskin, G. The Clash over Water: An Attempt at Demystification. Palestine-Israel Journal of Politics, Economics and Culture 1994; 1: 27 - 35.
In this article, the author makes an argument for why the dispute over water rights should not lead to any near confrontations between the Israelis and Palestinians. Through numerous calculations, it is shown how the current Israeli water consumption from the mountain aquifer in the West Bank only amounts to 0.67% of Israel's GNP. Therefore, Israel should hand over to the Palestinians complete control of the aquifer. Considering the low likelihood of this happening, several guidelines are given as a way to negotiate water rights in the interim period. According to the author, due to its wealth, Israel can afford to be "generous" towards the Palestinians regarding water rights.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
The report describes an investigation of the health risks posed by the use of waste water for sprinkler irrigation in an area close to Qalqilya. A field survey of disease incidence was carried out before, during and after the irrigation season in 1986. Two areas were surveyed: one is 20to 600 meters from the irrigation site and the other is approximately two kilometers from the site.
A comparison of disease patterns in the two areas did not provide sufficiently strong evidence for a conclusion to be made that a health effect had been detected. In addition, during the irrigation season, the irrigation method in the strip of fields closest to Qalqilya was changed from sprinkle to drip. This reduced the chance that any health effect would be detected by the study.
It is concluded that more research is required before rational public health guidelines could be devised. In the meantime, the authors conclude that Israeli guidelines requiring a minimum distance of 400 meters between the sprinkler site and the residential area should be followed.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
38. Dweik, 'A. The Demographic Dimension of the Water Crisis in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Presented to the first engineering workshop on water in the West Bank, Jerusalem, 1990, 36 pp.
In Arabic only.The paper comprises three sections: The first section describes the water conditions and consumption rates in the West Bank, Gaza Strip and Israel as well as the Israeli policy of exploiting Palestinian water sources in the Occupied Territories. The second section describes the expected demographic situation in the area for the years 1992 and 1995 based on the Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics' figures and projections made by the author. The expected water needs are calculated on the basis of the current consumption rates. Figures reveal a problem in fulfilling these needs. The third section describes hydrological and geopolitical reflections of the water shortage problem in the region.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
39. Elmusa, S. S. The Israeli-Palestinian Water Dispute Can Be Solved. Palestine-Israel Journal of Politics, Economics and Culture 1994; 1: 18 - 26.
This article describes general characteristics of the water conflict between the two sides. The author gives several examples of international water laws that can serve the joint management of water resources in the Jordan Basin. It is argued that Palestinians should be entitled to a much larger share of the common water sources than Israel because Israel has access to greater quantities from sources not shared with the West Bank. This would give Palestinians an incentive to properly manage headwaters of the mountain aquifer. In order for the struggle for water to recede, the author argues that Israel needs to change its attitude about water; as an emotional issue it is losing importance since irrigated agriculture, an integral part of Israel's founding ethos, only constitutes 3% of Israel's economy.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
40. Haddad, M. The Necessity and Importance of a National Plan for Water Supply and Sewerage. Najah University: 1990, 13 pp.
In Arabic only.Water supply and sewerage problems facing the communities of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip are numerous, serious, and have significant impacts on peoples' health and welfare. Water supply problems are primarily those of water resource distribution and supply. To a lesser extent, there are water problems concerning water quality and pollution. Sewerage problems include waste water collection, treatment and disposal or reuse.
The West Bank and the Gaza Strip have a special status as territories under military occupation where there is no national authority to administer and solve major problems of the community. The parties involved in water and sewage problems in the West Bank and Gaza are various NGOs, local municipalities and the military authorities' Civil Administration.
Current and past practices employed in solving water and sewage problems of the West Bank and Gaza were based on a day-to-day and problem-by-problem approach. In addition, many problems were badly tackled due to lack of basic data or study of needs, restrictions imposed by the military authorities, unqualified designers or unqualified contractors.
The author believes that there is vital necessity for a regional plan for water supply and sewerage of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. Such plan cannot be implemented without the participation of all parties involved (NGOs, municipalities and the people). To meet these objectives, an advisory board or committee should be formed on a regional level, composed of a group of experts actively engaged in the fields of water and sewerage. The main objective of the study is to investigate all the technical aspects as well as the economic, social and environmental effects of current problems, to propose solutions to these problems and to provide advice to the various parties involved.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
41. Hmaydi, M.S. Water Quality in the West Bank. Birzeit University Community Health Unit, undated: 6 pp.
In Arabic only.This review article presents a brief definition of clean drinking water. The concentration of fecal coliforms is used as an indicator of level of water pollution.
Cisterns which were fed by water originating from streets had more than 100 fecal coliforms/100 ml. Cisterns which were fed by water from home yards had the least level of coliform pollution. Cisterns which are located at a distance of more than 50 meters from sewage soakage pits had 50% less pollution than cisterns which are located at a shorter distance from soakage pits. The use of electric pumps in cisterns significantly reduced the pollution levels of the cisterns. Piped network water that is chemically treated had no significant pollution. Spring water showed seasonal fluctuations in pollution levels. All open water canals had more than 200 fecal coliforms/100 ml of water.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
42. Hmaydi, M.S. Rain water: Ways of Collection and Control. Basic Principles. Birzeit University Community Health Unit, 1992, 38 pp.
In Arabic only.The author proposes a technique for using rain water to fulfill local domestic needs. A description of collection, storage and purification methods is presented.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
43. Hmaydi, M.S. and Filfil, M. Bacterial Quality of Cistern Water in the City of Al-Bireh. 1989: 26 pp.
A study to investigate water quality in rain-fed cisterns in the West Bank city of Al-Bireh between April and October of 1988. The concentration of fecal coliforms is used as a measure of water quality. Water samples from 288 cisterns were studied.
Data concerning water catchment areas, cistern locations, water removal methods, physical characteristics of water, cleaning and chlorination procedures and their relations to water quality are presented. Nineteen percent of cisterns are free from fecal coliforms, sixteen percent are slightly contaminated (0 -9 fecal coliforms per 100 ml) and the rest show different levels of contamination. Guidelines for optimal and safe use of rain water are presented.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
44. Hmaydi, M.S. and Kaspari, S. The Use of Sewage and Waste Water for Irrigation. Birzeit University Community Health Unit, 1993, 37 pp.
In Arabic only.A description of the health, environmental and social aspects associated with the use of waste water for irrigation. The authors propose plans for treatment of waste water and its safe use for irrigation.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
45. Institute of Community and Public Health-Birzeit U. & Dept. of Environmental Health-Ministry of Health, Palestine. Industrialization, Urbanization and Environmental Health: The Case of Industrial Zoning, Water Use and Wastewater Disposal in the District of Ramallah and al-Bireh. 1998, 45 pp.
In Arabic and English.
As Palestinian cities go through the urbanization process, a host of environmental problems arise. This paper focuses on the industries in the Ramallah and al-Bireh urban center with specific details given to zoning and wastewater. The paper is concerned with four broad categories of zones: industrial, commercial, agricultural and residential. The paper previews the industrial wastewater status in the Ramallah and al-Bireh district and notes that implementing sustainable development principles can help in protecting the environment. In 1994, the Department of Environmental Health within the Palestinian ministry of health took the initiative to survey 111 factories operating in the Ramallah and al-Bireh district. The survey gathered a wide array of data on each facility, but only information pertaining to water use and wastewater generation and treatment were used for the purpose of this paper. Results of the survey indicate that 59 out of the 111 factories are located in the two urban areas of the district, while the remaining 52 factories are located in semi-urban and rural communities. The paper summarizes the distribution of factories by zones and explains how zoning does not apply in rural and semi-urban or urban areas. A growing trend is for privately owned agricultural land to be used for industrial purposes in spite of the fact that lands surrounding it are still used for agricultural purposes. The paper also summarizes the distribution of factories, consumption of water as well as disposal of dangerous materials in wastewater by type of industry. The paper concludes with recommendations calling for a system to regulate industries including stricter zoning that allows for a buffer between residential and industrial areas.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
46. Jerusalem District Water Undertaking. Ramallah Area Study and Documentation. Jerusalem District Water Undertaking, 1990, 70 pp.
In Arabic only.The report presents data concerning the Jerusalem District Water undertaking. Data include sources and cost of water, water tanks, pumping stations, distribution networks, meters, areas served, water quality and tests performed to assess it. The percentage of lost water, effectiveness of replacing the old networks and future plans are discussed.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
47. Jouda, K. M. Solid Waste Management in Gaza Strip Refugee Camps. Gaza: UNRWA, undated, 9 pp.
The author describes the conditions of solid waste management in refugee camps, including collection and disposal means. Refuse generation is generally increasing in refugee camps within the Gaza Strip and disposal is becoming an increasingly difficult problem.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
48. Khalid, M. An Integrated Approach in Water and Sanitation. Save the Children Federation, 1990, 10 pp.
In Arabic only.Most of the small rural communities of the Gaza Strip and the West Bank do not have proper sewage systems for the removal and treatment of sewage water. These communities rely on soakage pits that are usually designed to serve single households. These pits require digging, sometimes into rocky grounds, which increases the risk of contamination of the aquifer. Because of poor drainage capacity of some West Bank soils, frequent hyper-saturation and need for repair, these collection/soaking systems often fail, especially during the rainy season. In addition, these pits must be emptied frequently which creates an ongoing expense for the homeowner. Moreover, waste water which is discharged deep into the ground cannot be reused for agriculture thus wasting a valuable resource, especially in the Gaza Strip which faces a critical water shortage.
During the past few years various international and local agencies have attempted to link rural communities to potable water supplies, however most have not considered the resulting generation of unprecedented amounts of waste water.
Based on ten years experience, Save the Children has found that unless a sewage disposal system is introduced with a new water project, the health benefits could be nullified by the hazards of improperly disposed waste water.
Central systems require high capital investments, maintenance systems and approval of the Israeli military authorities and are impractical for many rural communities. SCF suggests an alternative waste water disposal system which allows treated effluent to be reused safely for the irrigation of crops. The system is the subsurface drainage technique (SDT) which consists of two phases: a primary sedimentation phase where solids settle out, and a secondary phase where the effluent flows underground from a tank into a field, through perforated pipes. Sewage is treated as it seeps through the soil that surrounds the pipes.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
49. Khatib, N. Potential Water Resources in the West Bank, Facts and Figures. Palestinian Hydrology Group, 1990, 15 pp.
In 1989, the West Bank had a population of approximately 1,275,000. During the same year, domestic water demand was estimated at 70 million cubic meters. Agricultural use was limited to 90 million cubic meters per annum.
The main water source in the West Bank is groundwater, either from springs (60 million cubic meters/year) or pumped bore holes (44 million cubic meters/year). Other minor sources include collected and stored rainwater and surplus water from Israeli bore holes. The average annual rainfall is estimated as 380 mm and the replenishable groundwater is estimated at 609 million cubic meters.
Although the groundwater potential is much higher than the water consumption, the existing water restrictions set by the Israeli water commissioner are the main cause of the water shortage in the West Bank. Under these restrictions, the solutions to the water problem can be through the development of rainwater harvesting methods, storage of the surplus water available to the new Israeli settlements and developing new water sources where feasible.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
48. Khodari, R. The Water Problem in the Gaza Strip and Proposed Solutions. Presented to a workshop concerning the water situation in the Occupied Territories, J, 1991, 11 pp.
The Gaza Strip suffers from a water crisis characterized by insufficient quantities and poor quality of water. The rapid population growth rate and the scarcity of fiscal resources necessary exacerbate this problem.
Groundwater, which is the main source of water in the Gaza Strip suffers from a continuous fall caused by the exploitation of Palestinian ground water sources by Israel and inadequate amounts of rainfall. An increase in the level of pollution is caused by the continuous increase in the salt level of the water and the spread of septic holes, and use of fertilizers and insecticides.
Suggestions proposed by the author to overcome the problem include using modern irrigation techniques, installation of healthy waste water disposal systems, efficient use of rainfall, sea water desalination and importing water.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
49. Kuttab, A. and Khalid, M. Comprehensive Technology for Drinking Water and Sanitation. Birzeit University and Save the Children Federation: 1990, 11 pp.
In Arabic only.A detailed description of a domestic sewage water treatment unit is presented. The described unit is most useful in rural areas.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
50. Kuttab, A. Drinking Water and Sanitation in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. Birzeit University and Save the Children Federation: 1990, 7 pp.
A review is presented of the goals of the international decade for drinking water and Sanitation and the activities that have been carried out in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip to achieve these goals.
An increase in domestic water consumption and wastewater production is noted. The effects of the inadequacy of sewage water disposal and treatment facilities on the general health of the population are reviewed. Some preliminary recommendations concerning inspection of drinking water and sewage treatment are made.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
51. Palestinian Hydrology Group. Water Conditions in the Occupied Territories and the Role of the Palestinian Hydrology Group. Palestinian Hydrology Group, 1991, 3 pp.
A review of water conditions and consumption rates in the Occupied Territories is presented. Main issues highlighted are limitations imposed by the Israeli authorities on drilling of artisan wells by Palestinians, rehabilitation of artisan wells and on the volumes of water which Palestinians are allowed to pump. The aims and goals of the Palestinian Hydrology Group are also presented.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
52. Palestinian Hydrology Group. The Future of Water Resources in Israel and the Occupied Territories. Palestinian Hydrology Group: 1991, 6 pp.
The paper reviews water consumption rates in the West Bank, the Gaza Strip and Israel. Means of overcoming the water shortage facing countries in the region are discussed.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
53. Salim, R., Khatib, I., Hilal, Z., and Abu El-Halawa, R. Pollution Levels of Drinking Water in Several Villages in Nablus Area and in the City of Hebron. Najah Research Journal 1988; 2, 1: 42-49.
Samples of drinking water were collected from several villages in the Nablus area and from the city of Hebron. The concentrations of Ni, Mg, Fe, Zn, Mn and Ca were determined using flame atomic spectroscopy. Results were compared with the maximum permitted limits. Higher levels of Mn, Fe and Ca were found in some samples.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
54. Salim, R., Qattawi, Z., Hilal, and H., 'Amer, I. Trace Metal Pollution Levels in Some Springs in Nablus. An-Najah J. Res. 1992; 2, 7: 7 - 21.
In Arabic only.Samples of drinking water from a number of springs around Nablus were collected between November and December 1985. Trace metal concentrations were determined using flame atomic spectroscopy.
Results include:
-Very low concentrations of lead, copper, zinc, nickel, iron and manganese. - PH of water was within the allowed range.
-High magnesium concentrations were found in many samples, but not high enough to pose risks.
-Calcium concentration in almost all samples studied was very high and higher than the allowed limit.
-Water chlorination caused an increase in the concentration of zinc and magnesium.Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
55. Shehadeh, R. Water and Law in the West Bank. Presented to the first engineering workshop on water in the West Bank, Jerusalem: 1990, 6 pp.
In Arabic only.The paper describes the juridical situation concerning water in the West Bank during Jordanian rule and Israeli occupation. The first part describes the Jordanian laws, prevailing before the 1967 war concerning water regulations. The second part describes the Israeli changes of these laws after 1967. The third part presents the international law concerning the use of natural resources during occupation and Israel's violations of these laws.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
56. Smith, C. Bacterial Quality of Drinking-Water in Eight Villages of the Jordan Valley. A Summary. 1984, 17 pp.
A study conducted by Birzeit University Community Health Unit and the Union of Palestinian Medical Relief Committees to evaluate the extent of fecal pollution of drinking water in eight villages of the Jordan valley. The results show that water of unacceptable quality is being consumed in all eight villages. The author presents recommendations for reducing the level of contamination of water.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
57. Smith, C., Sa'id, M., and 'Abdel Wahhab, F. Bacterial Quality of Drinking-Water in Seven Villages in the Hebron Region. Birzeit University Community Health Unit and Union of Palestinian Medical Relief Committees, 1985, 7 pp.
Water samples were collected at random from households in the villages and from the main water sources, and were analyzed for fecal coliform contamination following the standard WHO procedure for fecal enumeration.
The piped chlorinated water supplies were free from dangerous bacterial contamination. The majority of cisterns, however, revealed fecal contamination, which, by WHO standards, rendered them unfit as drinking-water sources. Nevertheless, many villagers interviewed preferred to drink from their cisterns rather than from the chlorinated supply where available. It is recommended that where a chlorinated supply is present the villagers be encouraged to drink from this source.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
The fecal pollution of drinking-water in the Palestinian village of Abu Shkhaydim was studied by measuring fecal coliform concentrations in the cisterns and in stored household water. The average quality of 75 cisterns was 5.01 fecal coliforms/100 ml.
The average fecal coliform concentration in cisterns with electric pumps was lower than in cisterns where buckets were used for removal of water (7.61 and 2.61 fecal coliforms/100 ml respectively). The difference in fecal coliform concentrations between stored household water and cistern water was greater in households using bucket removal (28.25 fecal coliforms/100 ml) compared to pump removal. Differences were significant at the 90% confidence limit, but not the 95% level.
Washing of the cistern the previous summer and the distance between latrines and cisterns had no measured influence on fecal coliform concentrations.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
59. Smith, C., Sa'id, M., Salem, H., and 'Odeh, M. The Introduction of a New Household Water Storage System Into a Palestinian Village and its Effects on the Faecal Pollution of Stored Water. Birzeit University Community Health Unit: 1985, 13 pp.
A study conducted in the village of Bardala in the northern Jordan Valley to measure the impact of a new method of water storage on pollution during storage. A new type of ceramic water storage vessel (zir) with an attached tap was introduced to the village. The old practice was to remove water from a tapless zir using a cup.
Fecal coliform concentrations were measured to compare water quality in the old and new containers. No significant difference in water pollution levels between the two types of containers was detected. The authors suggest that this is due to the rejection of the new method by villagers and the continuation of the old practice of removing water with the cup.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
60. Smith, C. and Sa'id, M. Seasonal Aspects of Faecal Coliform Concentrations in Nine Springs in the Ramallah Area. Birzeit University Community Health Unit: 1985, 9 pp.
Monitoring of fecal coliform concentrations in nine springs used for drinking in the Ramallah area was conducted between May 1984 and April 1985. Results suggest a seasonal trend of higher concentration of fecal coliforms in the dry season, and a lower concentration during the rainy season.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
61. Smith, C. Water Supply, Sanitation and Health in the West Bank. Birzeit University Community Health Unit, 1987, 24 pp.
A summary of information concerning water supply, sanitation and health in the West Bank is presented, drawing on other published data, and previous water quality and environmental studies conducted by the Birzeit University Community Health Unit.
Data from water quality surveys including piped supplies, rain-fed cisterns, springs and open canals are presented in which the level of fecal contamination was estimated using the fecal coliform index.
The main forms of excreta disposal in use are reviewed. Finally the implications for health and health development are discussed. It is argued that the health benefits of making piped water available to villages would be greater if combined with planning for sanitation and environmental improvement.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
62. Subeih, M. Well Rehabilitation. Presented at a workshop on the water situation in the Occupied Territories, Jerusalem: 1991, 10 pp.
In the context of the inability of Palestinians to dig new well in the Occupied Territories as a result of the restrictions imposed by the Israeli authorities, the author investigates different methods for rehabilitation of existing wells. Different methods for testing the performance of wells in the area are also discussed.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
63. Tamari, S. and Giacaman, R., Hleileh, S., Qirresh, and N. Zbeidat, The Social Impact of Drip Irrigation on a Palestinian Peasant Community in the Jordan Valley. Birzeit University Documentation and Research Center: 1980, 58 pp.
A survey of social and health conditions was conducted in a small village in the Jordan Valley. The report comprises one study of the social and economic structure of the village and the effects of the new irrigation technology, and a second covering health conditions in the village.
None of the houses had a potable water supply and only one had a latrine. Infant mortality was estimated at 102 per 1000 live births. Sixty-six children under five years of age were sampled for height and weight. Fifty-two percent were underweight (height for weight using McLaren and Read standards).
Other factors investigated included feeding habits and traditional healing practices and beliefs. Recommendations are made for health development in the village.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
64. Tamer Institute for Community Education. Treatment of Sewage Water, a Method Appropriate for Rural and Semi-rural Areas. Tamer Institute for Community Education, undated: 25 pp.
In Arabic only.A sewage treatment and disposal system is described which is appropriate for use in rural areas of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip where sewage disposal networks are not available. The total cost of one unit is estimated at $ 480 US.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
65. Tamimi, A. Natural Springs - An Alternative Source of Water in the Occupied Territories. Presented at a workshop on the water situation in the Occupied Territories, Jerusalem: 1991, 10 pp.
As a result of the limitations imposed by the Israeli authorities on Palestinians regarding the use of artisan wells, a suggested alternative source of water is natural springs. The paper describes the current situation of springs (in terms of the volumes of water produced) and some means of developing them.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
66. Water Resources Program. Environmental Assessment for the Jenin Area Water Supply System: Draft Partial Environmental Assessment. Palestinian Water Authority and USAID. 1996, 61 pages.
This environmental assessment was conducted as part of a project aimed at developing a long-term water facility master plan for the Jenin area. The Water Resource program is funded by USAID under the auspices of the Israeli-Palestinian Joint Water Committee. A partial assessment is presented of the project's impact on the environment for 11 villages of the Jenin area involved in the immediate stage of the project.
Back to contents of Water and Sanitation
67. Winka, A. and 'Abed-Rabbo, A. Drinking water in the Bethlehem district, 1990.
The purpose of the study is to establish a data base of the chemical, physical and biological parameters for the municipal drinking water in the Bethlehem district. Fifty-seven sample sites were chosen in the Bethlehem, Bayt Jala, Bayt Sahour refugee camps and villages. the samples were taken over the course of a nine week cycle for nine months (wet and dry seasons). The wells (Bayt Fajjar and Herodian 2) were sampled weekly. The average and confidence level for the average for the parameters tested are:
-Total solids: 0.3550 +/- 0.0402 mg/l
-Alkalinity: 247.9 + /- 7.3 mg CaCO#/l
-Conductivity: 559.4 +/-9.39 umho/cm3
-Hardness: 114.9 +/-11.8 mg CaCO3/l
-Chlorine: 0.27+/-0.13 mg Cl2/l